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Occupational Medicine Advance Access originally published online on January 22, 2008
Occupational Medicine 2008 58(2):138-140; doi:10.1093/occmed/kqm150
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© The Author 2008. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society of Occupational Medicine. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org

Short Reports

Work-related factors, sleep debt and insomnia in IT professionals

Marketta Kivistö1, Mikko Härmä2, Mikael Sallinen2 and Raija Kalimo3

1 Centre of Expertise for Health and Work Ability, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Topeliuksenkatu 41 a A, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland
2 Centre of Expertise for Human Factors at Work, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Topeliuksenkatu 41 a A, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland
3 Professor (emerita) of Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (retired)

Correspondence to: Marketta Kivistö, Centre of Expertise for Health and Work Ability, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Topeliuksenkatu 41 a A, FI-00250 Helsinki, Finland. Tel: +358 304741; fax: +358 304742651; e-mail: marketta.kivisto{at}ttl.fi


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Funding
 Conflicts of interest
 References
 
Background Reduced sleep can be associated with a risk of health problems. Information technologies (IT) professionals often work long hours and this could have an effect on their sleep quality.

Aims To examine the prevalence of sleep debt, insomnia and long working hours among Finnish IT professionals and to analyse which specific work-related factors are associated with shortened sleep.

Methods Cross-sectional, representative data from a questionnaire survey of IT professionals. Hierarchical regression analyses were applied to investigate relationships of sleep debt and insomnia.

Results A total of 2334 IT professionals responded to the survey. Thirty-seven per cent reported sleep debt of at least 1 h and 6% of at least 2 h, while 16% reported insomnia. Twenty-seven per cent worked for a minimum of 50 h a week, while 31% spent at least 50 h a week on work. The most important factors associated with both sleep debt and insomnia were work-related demands requiring long hours, mental stamina and problem solving and positive perceptions of work, such as job control and importance of the respondents' own work in their life.

Conclusions Even though long working hours were common among IT professionals in Finland, sleep debt and insomnia were not. Work-related factors were associated with insufficient sleep.

Keywords      Insomnia; IT professionals; sleep debt; work; working hours


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Funding
 Conflicts of interest
 References
 
The global uptake of information technologies (IT) has fuelled the emergence of a 24-h society by providing people with the opportunity to work unlimited by the boundaries of time and space. In the work of IT professionals, this development is further enabled by flexible working hours. This could possibly generate risks for health and recovery from work (e.g. over commitment to work and insufficient sleep). Long working hours and reduced sleep have both been found to be associated with a higher risk of health problems. However, the relationship between long working hours and psychological health remains uncertain [1–3].

The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of sleep debt, insomnia and long working hours among Finnish IT professionals and to identify work factors associated with sleep problems.


   Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
Results
 Discussion
 Funding
 Conflicts of interest
 References
 
A questionnaire was sent out in 2001 to 5000 IT professionals who were members of the Finnish Information Processing Association (FIPA), an independent association of Finnish IT professionals and companies that either provide or utilize IT products and services. In order to ensure a sufficient representation of programmers in the sample, we used stratified sampling with varying probabilities. The construction of the target sample (5000) began with the inclusion of 234 programmers found in a sample of 10 000 people extracted from the mass of ~25 000 FIPA members (excluding students). The rest (4766) of the target samples (5000) were chosen on the basis of a random selection of all the members of FIPA. FIPA members constitute one-third of all Finnish IT professionals. Of these 5000 IT professionals, 4624 were included in the study. The 376 exclusions were for individuals who declared themselves to be unemployed, retired or otherwise uninvolved in work life for >6 months immediately before responding.

Self-reported sleep debt [4] (the difference between self-reported sleep need and self-reported sleep length) and insomnia [5] were the dependent factors used in hierarchical regression analyses. The independent factors were perceptions of work and work demands (see Table 1). Adjustment was made for age, gender and early/late-riser type. The results of the factor analyses of demands and perceptions of work were used to inform the regression analyses.


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  		Table 1. The independent factors of the study

 

   Results
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 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
Discussion
 Funding
 Conflicts of interest
 References
 
A total of 2334 (50%) of the 4624 IT professionals responded to the questionnaire. The job titles of the respondents (71% of whom were men) were as follows: 23% were software designers, 15% managers, 11% programmers and testers, 8% project managers, 7% trainers and consults, 6% technical support, 6% consultants, 5% administrators and 5% sales/purchasing personnel. Fifty per cent of the respondents had a university education. The group of respondents was representative of Finnish IT professionals in all factors apart from age, which was 6 years higher than the mean age of all FIPA members.

The average self-reported sleep length of IT professionals was 7.2 h and 37% reported a sleep debt of at least 1 h and 6% of at least 2 h. Only 16% of respondents reported insomnia. Sleep debt was commoner in younger people. Also, sleep length was longer and need of sleep was higher among younger people. Insomnia was commoner in the older age group. Sleep debt and insomnia were commoner in women, and sleep debt was most commonly reported by late-riser types. The number of average weekly working hours was 44.3, and the average amount of time spent on work and study was 45.2 h a week. Twenty-seven per cent of the respondents spent at least 50 h a week working. The average hours spent on work per week were 43.5 in day workers (SD 7.6; n = 1937), 50.7 in shift workers (SD 14.7; n = 69), 43.4 in workers who had a self-determined working time but an agreed number of hours (±10.2; n = 92), 48.0 in workers subject to agreements based on work achievements (±11.6; n = 114) and 53.1 in workers with completely undetermined working hours (±12.8; n = 81). Overtime was reported by 82%, but only 16% reported receiving monetary compensation for it.

After adjustment for age, gender and early/late-riser type, the following perceptions of work were found to be significantly associated with both sleep debt and insomnia: importance of work in the person's life, poor job control, poor opportunities to develop and poor support from the person's immediate superior. When work demands were entered into the models regarding sleep debt, long hours at work and demands for mental stamina were found to be significantly associated with sleep debt (Table 2).


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  		Table 2. Perceptions of work and work demands associated with sleep debt and insomnia

 

   Discussion
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 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
Funding
 Conflicts of interest
 References
 
We have found that even though long working hours are common among Finnish IT professionals, sleep debt or insomnia are not. The proportion of those working for at least 50 h a week (27%) was higher than in the general population in Finland (16%). Sleep debt was most common among the youngest and insomnia among the oldest respondents, which is compatible with previous observations [9]. Young men reported spending more time on work and study than others. Considering that the percentage of those who replied in this age group was smaller than expected, it is possible that the amount of time spent on work and study by young men in the IT sector is in reality even greater.

There was a strong correlation found between the importance placed on work and long working hours and shortened sleep. This could reflect IT professionals' strong commitment to work, which can be very stressful. However, as 66% of the subjects did not receive payment for overtime, this result can be more easily understood if we suppose that the employees working long hours were perhaps internally motivated to do so.

Work-related factors were associated with insufficient sleep. A more positive perception of work and more suitable work demands might reduce sleep debt and insomnia and thus promote recovery from work. Because work-related factors explained only a small part of the variance in sleep debt and insomnia, there are still other, perhaps individual, factors that impact sleep problems and merit further study.


Key points
  • Long working hours are common among IT professionals in Finland, while sleep debt and insomnia are not.
  • With long working hours, internal motivation seems to serve as a protection against stress.
  • Suitable work demands and positive perceptions of work may promote better sleep.

 


   Funding
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Funding
Conflicts of interest
 References
 
Finnish Work Environment Fund (100318, 103484 to M. K.; 105018 to M. K.) and Finnish Institution of Occupational Health.


   Conflicts of interest
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None declared.


   Acknowledgements
 
The present study forms part of the larger project ‘Decent Work—A Sound of Life’ established by the Finnish Institution of Occupational Health. The authors also wish to thank the FIPA for their help in developing and collecting the database used in this analysis.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Funding
 Conflicts of interest
 References
 

  1. Van der Hulst M, Veldhoven M, Beckers D. Overtime and need for recovery to job demands and job control. J Occup Health (2006) 48:11–19.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

  2. Tucker P, Rutherford C. Moderators of the relationship between long work hours and health. J Occup Health Psychol (2005) 10:465–476.[CrossRef][Medline]

  3. Krantz G, Berntsson L, Lundberg U. Total workload, work stress and perceived symptoms in Swedish male and female white-collar employees. Eur J Public Health (2005) 15:209–214.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

  4. Hublin C, Kaprio J, Partinen M, Koskenvuo M. Insufficient sleep—a population-based study in adults. Sleep (2001) 24:392–400.[Web of Science][Medline]

  5. Partinen M, Gislason T. Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire (BNSQ): a quantitated measure of subjective sleep complaints. J Sleep Res (1995) 4:150–155.[Web of Science][Medline]

  6. Jackson P, Wall T, Martin R, Davids K. New measures of job control, cognitive demand, and production responsibility. J Appl Psychol (1993) 78:753–762.[CrossRef][Web of Science]

  7. Kouvonen A, Toppinen-Tanner S, Kivistö M, Huuhtanen P, Kalimo R. Job characteristics and burnout among aging professionals in information and communications technology. Psychol Rep (2005) 97:505–514.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

  8. Kanungo RN. Measurement of job and work involvement. J Appl Psychol (1982) 67:341–349.[CrossRef][Web of Science]

  9. Sallinen M, Härmä M, Kalimo R, Hakanen J. The prevalence of sleep debt and its association with fatigue, performance and accidents in the modern society. People Work Res Rep (2000) 33:140–143.


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